Citation

Hammond, D., Reid, J., Driezen, P., Cummings, K.M., Borland, R., Fong, G.T., McNeill, A. (2008). Smokers' use of nicotine replacement therapy for reasons other than stopping smoking: Findings from the ITC Four Country Survey. Addiction, 103(10), 1696-1703.

Abstract

Aims: To measure the prevalence and correlates of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) use for reasons other than quitting smoking among smokers in four countries.

Design and setting: Population-based, cross-sectional telephone survey with nationally representative samples of adult smokers in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia, conducted in 2005.

Participants: A total of 6532 adult daily smokers in Canada (n = 1660), the United States (n = 1664), the United Kingdom (n = 1617) and Australia (n = 1591).

Measurements: Survey questions included demographics, smoking behaviour, use of NRT and reasons for NRT use, as well as access and availability of NRT.

Findings: Approximately 17% of smokers surveyed had used NRT in the past year. Among NRT users, approximately one-third used NRT for a reason other than quitting smoking, including temporary abstinence or reducing the number of cigarettes smoked. The prevalence of non-standard NRT use was remarkably consistent across countries. Using NRT for reasons other than quitting was associated with higher education level, heavier smoking, having no quit intentions, having no past-year quit attempts, the type of NRT product used and accessing NRT without a prescription.

Conclusions: The use of NRT for purposes other than quitting smoking is fairly common and may help to explain the difficulty in detecting significant quitting benefits associated with NRT use in population studies. Tobacco control policies, including the accessibility of NRT, may have important implications for patterns of NRT use.

Citation

Hassan, L.M., Shiu, E., Thrasher, J.F., Fong, G.T., Hastings, G. (2008). Exploring the effectiveness of cigarette warning labels: Findings from the United States and United Kingdom arms of the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 13(3), 263-274.

Abstract

This paper explores the effectiveness of cigarette warning labels across two countries, one (the UK) with new and stricter legislation where text based labels have been made more prominent and one (the USA) with less stringent regulation, where labels are less visible. Using longitudinal data from the two countries, the research seeks to investigate the impact of the different types of warning labels on the information processing by consumers. This paper assesses the effectiveness of warning labels in terms of: consumer attention, elaboration, contemplation on quitting and behavioural compliance. This study provides a comprehensive examination of these key factors in a fixed causal sequence. Structural equation modelling was used to test this model based on longitudinal panel survey data from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. Analysis of a sample of 901 US smokers and 1459 UK smokers yielded results in full support of all hypothesised relationships in the model proposed for both countries. Findings suggest that the new European Union policy of more prominent warning labels has a direct effect on influencing behavioural compliance by smokers.

Citation

Hyland, A., Higbee, C., Hassan, L.M., Fong, G.T., Borland, R., Cummings, K.M., Hastings, G. (2008). Does smoke-free Ireland have more smoking inside the home and less in pubs than the United Kingdom? Findings from the International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation Project. European Journal of Public Health, 18(1), 63-65.

Abstract

Background: In March 2004, Ireland implemented comprehensive smoke-free regulations. Some were concerned this would cause pub patrons to move their smoking and drinking from inside pubs to inside homes. This article aims to assess whether nationwide smoke-free policies are associated with more smoking or drinking inside the home.

Methods: Participants were 1917 adult smokers (> 18-years old) from Ireland (n = 582), Scotland (n = 507) and the rest of the United Kingdom (n = 828), which did not have smoke-free laws at the time of the interview, who completed a random digit-dialed telephone survey in February to March 2006. The percentage of alcoholic drinks consumed in the home versus pubs was compared by country as well as the percentage of daily cigarette consumption occurring in the home after work.

Results: Irish respondents reported a significantly lower percentage of alcoholic drinks consumed in the home compared to Scotland and the rest of the United Kingdom, and cigarette consumption in the home was comparable in all three regions.

Conclusions: Smoking and drinking in the home was not greater in smoke-free Ireland than in the United Kingdom, where there was not a smoke-free law at the time of the survey. These findings add further support to the enactment of comprehensive smoke-free laws, as called for in the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.

Citation

Shahab, L., Hammond, D., O’Connor, R.J., Cummings, K.M., Borland, R., King, B., McNeill, A. (2008). The reliability and validity of self-reported puffing behavior: Evidence from a cross-national study. Nicotine & Tobacco Research,10(5), 867-874.

Abstract

Self-reported puffing behavior has considerable potential as an indicator of smoking intensity, particularly in survey research evaluating population-based changes in smoking patterns. However, little is known about the reliability and validity of self-reported puffing behavior. This study compared smokers’ perceptions of their puffing behavior with measures of both machinedetermined puffing behavior and nicotine uptake to assess the utility of self-report. We assessed self-reported puffing behavior as well as demographic and smoking characteristics of 118 smokers from Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. At two visits, participants were asked to provide a saliva sample and to smoke a cigarette through a portable smoking topography device, the CReSSmicro, to measure puffing behavior. Saliva samples were assayed for cotinine, a measure of nicotine uptake, to provide estimates of smoke exposure. Intraclass coefficients for all measures of self-reported general puffing behavior were above .6, indicating that self-reported measures had fair-to-good test–retest reliability. Self-report, in particular of interpuff interval and number of cigarette puffs, was correlated only moderately with machine-determined puffing measures (.2<r<.4), and no self-report measure related to smoke exposure as measured by cotinine. Self-reported measures of puffing behavior appear to be fairly reliable but are correlated only weakly with objective measures of smoking topography. Results suggest that smokers have a better perception of the time spent between puffs and of the number of puffs taken than of the intensity and depth of each puff or their actual smoke exposure.

Citation

Siahpush, M., Borland, R., Yong, H.H., Kin, F., Sirirassamee, B. (2008). Socio-economic variations in tobacco consumption, intention to quit and self-efficacy to quit among male smokers in Thailand and Malaysia: Results from the International Tobacco Control-South-East Asia (ITC-SEA) Survey. Addiction, 103(3), 502-508.

Abstract

Aim: To examine the association of socio-economic position (education, income and employment status) with cigarette consumption, intention to quit and self-efficacy to quit among male smokers in Thailand and Malaysia.

Design and setting: The data were based on a survey of adult smokers conducted in early 2005 in Thailand and Malaysia as part of the International Tobacco Control–South-East Asia (ITC– SEA) project.

Participants: A total of 1846 men in Thailand and 1906 men in Malaysia.

Measurement: Participants were asked questions on daily cigarette consumption, intention to quit and self-efficacy to quit in face-to-face interviews.

Findings: Analyses were based on multivariate regression models that adjusted for all three socio-economic indicators. In Thailand, higher level of education was associated strongly with not having self-efficacy, associated weakly with having an intention to quit and was not associated with cigarette consumption. Higher income was associated strongly with having self-efficacy, associated weakly with high cigarette consumption and was not associated with having an intention to quit. Being employed was associated strongly with having an intention to quit and was not associated with cigarette consumption or self-efficacy. In Malaysia, higher level of education was not associated with any of the outcomes. Higher income was associated strongly with having self-efficacy, and was not associated with the other outcomes. Being employed was associated moderately with higher cigarette consumption and was not associated with the other outcomes.

Conclusion: Socio-economic and cultural conditions, as well as tobacco control policies and tobacco industry activities, shape the determinants of smoking behaviour and beliefs. Existing knowledge from high-income countries about disparities in smoking should not be generalized readily to other countries.

Citation

Yong, H.H., Borland, R., Hyland, A., Siahpush, M. (2008). How does a failed quit attempt among regular smokers affect their cigarette consumption? Findings from the International Tobacco Control Four Country Survey (ITC-4). Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 10(5), 897-905.

Abstract

Recent cross-sectional data suggests that smokers tend to reduce smoking following a failed selfinitiated quit attempt, possibly motivated by the need to reduce harms or to facilitate future quitting or both. This study prospectively examined changes in cigarette consumption among adult smokers who relapsed from a quit attempt. It uses data from the first three waves of the International Tobacco Control Four-Country Survey (ITC-4), a random digit-dialed telephone survey of a cohort of over 9,000 adult smokers from the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, and Australia, followed up annually. Compared with those who did not make a quit attempt, relapsers were more likely to reduce consumption (average reduction of 0.7 vs. 3.4, respectively) over a mean period of 7 months between waves 1 and 2. Of the relapsers, 52% reduced their consumption by 5% or more, but 22% increased it. Smokers who smoked heavily at baseline, whose last quit attempt ended more recently, was of longer duration, and quit via a gradual cutdown method were all independently associated with reducing smoking following a failed attempt. These findings were similar across all four countries and were successfully replicated using waves 2–3 data. Change in consumption between waves 1 and 2 (whether increase or decrease) was maintained by a substantial number a year later (wave 3), but change did not undermine nor promote quitting between waves 2 and 3.

Citation

Yong, H.H., Borland, R., Hammond, D., Sirirassamee, B., Ritthiphakdee, B., Awang, R., Omar, M., Kin, F., Zain, Z., Lee, W.B., Siahpush, M., Fong, G.T. (2008). Levels and correlates of awareness of tobacco promotional activities among adult smokers in Malaysia and Thailand: Findings from the International Tobacco Control Southeast Asia (ITC-SEA) Survey. Tobacco Control, 17(1), 46-52.

Abstract

Aim: To examine the impact of tobacco advertising policy on adult smokers’ awareness of tobacco promotion in two developing countries—Malaysia and Thailand.

Methods: Data from 2004 Malaysian and 2000 Thai adult smokers who participated in the baseline wave of the International Tobacco Control Southeast Asia survey (ITCSEA). Respondents were asked in a face-to-face interview conducted between January and March 2005 to indicate their levels of awareness of tobacco advertising and promotional activities in the last six months.

Results: Unprompted awareness of any tobacco marketing activities was very low in Thailand (20%) but significantly higher in Malaysia (53%; OR=5.6, 95% CI: 3.5 to 8.9, p<0.001). When prompted about specific locations, Thai adult smokers reported very low recall of tobacco advertising where it was banned, being highest around point of sale, particularly street vendors (7.5%). In contrast, Malaysian adult smokers reported significantly higher levels of awareness of tobacco advertising in all locations (range=17.7% noticing in disco lounges to 59.3% on posters) including where they are nationally banned (for example, billboards).

Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that comprehensive tobacco advertising legislation when well implemented can lead to dramatic decline in awareness of tobacco promotion, thus supporting strong implementation of Article 13 of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.

Citation

Young, D., Yong, H.H., Borland, R., Ross, H., Sirirassamee, B., Kin, F., Hammond, D., O’Connor, R.J., Fong, G.T. (2008). Prevalence and correlates of roll-your-own smoking in Thailand and Malaysia: Findings of the ITC-South East Asia Survey. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 10(5), 907-915.

Abstract

Roll-your-own (RYO) cigarette use has been subject to relatively limited research, particularly in developing countries. This paper seeks to describe RYO use in Thailand and Malaysia and relate RYO use to smokers’ knowledge of the harmfulness of tobacco. Data come from face-to-face surveys with 4,004 adult smokers from Malaysia (N=2,004) and Thailand (N=2000), collected between January and March 2005. The prevalence of any use of RYO cigarettes varied greatly between Malaysia (17%) and Thailand (58%). In both countries, any RYO use was associated with living in rural areas, older average age, lower level of education, male gender, not being in paid work, slightly lower consumption of cigarettes, higher social acceptability of smoking, and positive attitudes toward tobacco regulation. Among RYO users, exclusive use of RYO cigarettes (compared with mixed use) was associated with older age, female gender (relatively), thinking about the enjoyment of smoking, and not making a special effort to buy cheaper cigarettes if the price goes up. Finally, exclusive RYO smokers were less aware of health warnings (RYO tobacco carries no health warnings), but even so, knowledge of the health effects of tobacco was equivalent.

Citation

Fong, G.T., Ratte, S., Craig, L., Driezen, P., Wilquin, J.L., Beck, F., Guignard, R., Kennedy, R.D., Arwidson, P. (2008). Évaluation des politiques de lutte contre le tabagisme en France: Résultats de la premiere vague de l'enquete ITC France. Bulletin Epidémiologique Hebdomadaire, 22(27), 182-187.

Abstract

In recent years, countries throughout the world have made policy advancements in recognition of the threat that tobacco use poses to public health. The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), the first-ever treaty on health, has been ratified by over 150 countries, including France. The FCTC identifies tobacco control policy domains in which the parties must implement policies (e.g., enhanced warning labels, protection from tobacco smoke in public places, bans/restrictions on advertising/promotion/sponsorship, higher taxes). Rigorous and comprehensive evaluation of FCTC policies is essential in increasing the likelihood that the actual policies implemented will meet the objectives of the FCTC in significantly reducing the toll of tobacco throughout the world. The International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation Project (the ITC Project) is an international collaborative effort to conduct rigorous evaluation of the FCTC. The ITC Project consists of prospective cohort surveys of representative samples of adult smokers in 15 countries, inhabited by over half of the world’s smokers. The ITC France Survey was created as a system for comprehensive surveillance and evaluation of tobacco control initiatives in France, including the two-phase smoke-free initiative. This paper presents selected findings from the initial wave (2006) of the ITC France Survey in three areas: a) smoking behaviour and cessation, b) smoke-free laws, and c) warning labels. Comparisons are made with other ITC countries in Europe. Findings lead to the prediction of a successful implementation of the smoke-free law in France and to the potential benefits of graphic warnings. They also suggest challenges for tobacco control in France, including the need to engage health professionals as agents for assisting smokers to quit.

Citation

Thomson, G., Wilson, N., Weerasekera, D., Edwards, R. (2008). Ninety-six percent of New Zealand smokers support smokefree cars containing preschool children. New Zealand Medical Journal, 121(1285), 139-140.

Abstract

New Zealand and international research shows that smoking in cars, even with the windows down, produces dangerous levels of pollutants.1,2 These levels are far higher than World Health Organization air quality guidelines for particulates in ambient air.3 While at least 10 Australian and North American jurisdictions (including California) have banned smoking in cars carrying children,4–13 New Zealand officials have been reported as hesitant about considering such a move.14 Perceived questions about public support appear to have contributed to lack of progress on this issue in New Zealand.14 In a number of areas of Australia and North America, support from smokers (85% or over) and non smokers (90% or over) has been reported for banning smoking in cars with children inside.15–18 In a 1997 Wellington area survey, 94% agreed that cars with children in them should be smokefree (86% of smokers).15 In a 2004 New Zealand wide survey, 76% disagreed that it is “okay” to smoke around non smokers inside cars even when there are windows down.16

Citation

Jiang, Y., Li, X., Zhao, G., Yang, Y., Feng, G., Jiao, S., Zhao, J., Zhu, G., Luo, B., Li, X., Li, Q. (2008). Knowledge about the adverse health effects of tobacco among smokers in six cities in China (Language: Chinese). Chinese Journal of Health Education, 24(9), 665-668.

Abstract

Written in Chinese - please access link to see full article.

Citation

Seo, H.G., Cheong, Y., Myung, S.K., Kim, Y., Lee, W.B., Fong, G.T. (2008). Smoking-related characteristics in Korean adult smokers: Findings from the 2005 International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation Survey-Korea (Language: Korean). Journal of Korean Academy of Family Medicine, 29(11), 844-853.

Abstract

Background: This study reports findings from the ITC Korea Survey, which was conducted to evaluate the characteristics in Korean adult smokers as part of the ITC Project.

Methods: Adult male and female smokers were randomly selected using telephone survey from November to December 2005. The ITC Korea Survey contained a wide range of questions on smoking behavior and smoking history. The data reported are weighted on the basis of age and gender, and they are nationally representative of smokers in Korea.

Results: A total of 1,002 smokers among the selected 1,402 subjects (71.5%) were interviewed; 96.2% were males. Daily smokers comprised 94.5% of the sample. The mean of cigarettes per day was 17.9. The average minutes after waking before the first cigarette was smoked was lower (50.6 minutes) than it was in other countries of the ITC Project. Over 90% considered themselves addicted to cigarettes and 86.5% expressed regret over smoking. Smokers reported that the norms against smoking in Korea were very strong both personal norms (89.4%) and perceived norms in Korean society (86.3%). Among the smokers, 80.8% had tried to quit smoking, and 76.1% were planning to quit. Only 5.8% of the Korean smokers indicated that the warning labels made them a lot more likely to quit smoking. When the price of cigarettes increased by 500 won (25%) in December 2004, 34.3% reported trying to quit smoking. Only 17.7% supported a complete workplace ban and 15.8% supported a complete ban in restaurants. Although knowledge of the harms of smoking was high, nearly 80% of the Koreans wrongly believed that “nicotine causes most of the cancer in smokers.” Finally, the great majority (85.2%) of smokers in Korea believed that “the government should do more to tackle the harm done by smoking” and 62.5% believed that “tobacco products should be more tightly regulated.”

Conclusion: The results from the baseline wave of the ITC Korea Survey have identified where tobacco control in Korea has been done. Future waves of the ITC Korea Survey will be able to evaluate the impact of important tobacco control policies that Korea will be required to implement over the next few years, as a party to the FCTC.

Citation

Thrasher, J.F., Reynales-Shigematsu, L.M., Baezconde-Garbanati, L., Villalobos, V., Tellez-Giron, P., Arillo-Santillán, E., Dorantes-Alonso, A., Valdes-Salgado, R., Lazcano-Ponce, E. (2008). Promoting the effective translation of the framework convention on tobacco control: A case study of challenges and opportunities for strategic communications in Mexico. Evaluation & the Health Professions, 31(2), 145-166.

Abstract

The World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO-FCTC) promotes the implementation of best-practices tobacco control policies at a global scale. This article describes features of the sociocultural and political-economic context of Mexico that pose challenges and opportunities to the effective translation of WHO-FCTC policies there. It also considers how strategic communication efforts may advance these policies by framing their arguments in ways that resonate with prevalent values, understandings, and concerns. A focus on a smoke-free policy illustrates barriers to policy compliance, including how similar issues have been overcome among Latino populations in California. Overall, this article aims to lay the foundation for comparative research from policy uptake to impact so that the scientific evidence base on tobacco control policies includes examination of how context moderates this process.

Citation

Wilson, N., Thomson, G., Edwards, R., Weerasekera, D., Laugesen, M. (2008). Most New Zealand smokers support having fire-safe cigarettes: National survey data. New Zealand Medical Journal, 121(1286), 134-135.

Abstract

A recent New Zealand study on cigarette fires and burns among New Zealand smokers,1 has highlighted again yet another adverse consequence of nicotine addiction. The obvious long-term solution to this problem is to lower smoking prevalence by advancing comprehensive tobacco control measures (as previously advocated by injury researchers in New Zealand2). However, a more direct and supplementary option is for governments to mandate for fire safe (or “reduced ignition propensity”) cigarettes as per Canada and various US states (including New York and California).3,4

Citation

Zhu, G., Jiang, Y., Li, Q., Hu, L., Hu, J., Zhao, G., Yin, L., Jiao, S., Li, Z., Li, Z., Luo, B., Zhao, J. (2008). Comparison of smoking characteristics between smokers in Changsha and five other cities in China (Language: Chinese). Practical Preventive Medicine, 15(6), 1691-1694.

Abstract

Objective: To approach the features about smoking behavior, quit pattern, and tobacco control policies in Changsha, and to provide a scientific basis for tobacco control in Changsha.

Methods: Multiple stage sampling method was used to sample 800 smokers in each of the six cities Face to face interviews were conducted.

Conclusions: As compared with the other five cities, smokers in Changsha tend to smoke higher number of cigarettes per day to be more addicted to cigarettes, to smoke local cigarette brand to relapse after quitting to have weaker desire to quit smoking, and to be less confident to quit smoking In addition, the tobacco control policies in Changsha are not as strong as the other five cities.

Citation

Ding, X., Bedingfield, S., Yeh, C.H., Borland, R., Young, D., Zhang, J.Y., Petrovic-Lazarevic, S, Coghill, K. (2008). A decision tree approach for predicting smokers’ quit intentions. Journal of Electronic Science and Technology of China, 6(3), 220-224.

Abstract

This paper presents a decision tree approach for predicting smokerspsila quit intentions using the data from the International Tobacco Control Four Country Survey. Three rule-based classification models are generated from three data sets using attributes in relation to demographics, warning labels, and smokerspsila beliefs. Both demographic attributes and warning label attributes are important in predicting smokerspsila quit intentions. The modelpsilas ability to predict smokerspsila quit intentions is enhanced, if the attributes regarding smokerspsila internal motivation and beliefs about quitting are included.

Citation

Thomson, G., Wilson, N., Weerasekera, D., Edwards, R. (2008). Ninety-six percent of New Zealand smokers support smokefree cars containing preschool children. New Zealand Medical Journal, 121(1285), 139-140.

Abstract

New Zealand and international research shows that smoking in cars, even with the windows down, produces dangerous levels of pollutants. These levels are far higher than World Health Organization air quality guidelines for particulates in ambient air. While at least 10 Australian and North American jurisdictions (including California) have banned smoking in cars carrying children, New Zealand officials have been reported as hesitant about considering such a move. Perceived questions about public support appear to have contributed to lack of progress on this issue in New Zealand. In a number of areas of Australia and North America, support from smokers (85% or over) and non smokers (90% or over) has been reported for banning smoking in cars with children inside. In a 1997 Wellington area survey, 94% agreed that cars with children in them should be smokefree (86% of smokers). In a 2004 New Zealand wide survey, 76% disagreed that it is “okay” to smoke around non smokers inside cars even when there are windows down.

Citation

Thomson, G., Wilson, N., Bushell, L., Al Matar, W., Ball, B., Chiu, J., Culliford, N., Gibson, K., Hudson, J., Hunt, P., Rangamuwa, K., Tapp, D., Wickramaratne, H., Young, V. (2008). Butt lengths differ by area deprivation level: A field study to explore intensive smoking. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 10(5), 927-931.

Abstract

We collected cigarette butts in a range of residential areas, to assess differences in the length of unburnt tobacco in the butts, and in proportions of roll-your-own (RYO) cigarettes. Two high, two medium, and two low deprivation areas, as classified by deciles of the New Zealand Deprivation Index, were selected for the Wellington region. Collected butts were systematically classified and measured. A mixed model of analysis, treating location clusters nested within deprivation level areas as a random effect, was used to assess differences in mean length of unburnt tobacco in the butts. A total of 6,262 cigarette butts and separate filters were collected, of which 3,509 (56.0%) were measurable manufactured cigarette butts, 1,069 were unmeasurable manufactured butts, 1,450 were RYO butts, and 236 were RYO filters. The RYO butts were not measured because of the extent of their degradation. The unburnt tobacco lengths in manufactured cigarette butts were significantly shorter in the most deprived areas, relative to the least deprived areas (p = .035). Deformed manufactured cigarette butts (i.e., that potentially were stubbed out) showed the same pattern (p = .011 between the most and least deprived areas). We found no significant difference between deprivation areas in the proportion of RYO material found. The shorter mean unburnt tobacco length in the most deprived areas is consistent with more intensive smoking among smokers in those areas. This finding is consistent with other evidence of increased price sensitivity among poorer smokers, and with basic economic theory. Further evidence on observed smoking behavior in the field is necessary to better interpret these preliminary findings.

Citation

Norton, K.J., Wilkins, K., O’Connor, R.J., Wilson, N., Edwards, R., Peace, J. (2008). Properties of “light” cigarettes sold in New Zealand. New Zealand Medical Journal, 121(1281), 107-117.

Abstract

“Light” or “mild” cigarettes have historically been marketed to appeal to health concerned smokers, and positioned as an alternative to quitting.1 But despite this marketing strategy, there is evidence that “light” cigarettes often deliver as much tar as regular cigarettes.2 Furthermore, there is epidemiological evidence that suggests no significant health benefit in terms of lung cancer, heart disease or chronic lung disease for smoking “light” versus other cigarettes.2,3

Citation

Hyland, A., Cummings, K.M., Higbee, C., Dresler, C., Travers, M. (2008). A 32-country comparison of tobacco smoke derived particle levels in indoor public places. Tobacco Control, 17(3), 159-165.

Abstract

Objective: To compare tobacco smoke derived particulate levels in transportation and hospitality venues with and without smoking in 32 countries using a standardised measurement protocol.

Methods: The TSI SidePak AM510 Personal Aerosol Monitor was used to measure the concentration of particulate matter less than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM(2.5)) in 1822 bars, restaurants, retail outlets, airports and other workplaces in 32 geographically dispersed countries between 2003 and 2007.

Results: Geometric mean PM(2.5) levels were highest in Syria (372 microg/m(3)), Romania (366 microg/m(3)) and Lebanon (346 microg/m(3)), while they were lowest in the three countries that have nationwide laws prohibiting smoking in indoor public places (Ireland at 22 microg/m(3), Uruguay at 18 microg/m(3) and New Zealand at 8 microg/m(3)). On average, the PM(2.5) levels in places where smoking was observed was 8.9 times greater (95% CI 8.0 to 10) than levels in places where smoking was not observed.

Conclusions: Levels of indoor fine particle air pollution in places where smoking is observed are typically greater than levels that the World Health Organization and US Environmental Protection Agency have concluded are harmful to human health.

Citation

Wilson, N., Edwards, R., Thomson, G. (2008). Use of four major tobacco control interventions in New Zealand: a review. New Zealand Medical Journal, 121(1276), 71-86.

Abstract

Aims: To identify the extent to which four major population-level tobacco control interventions were used in New Zealand from January 2000 to June 2007.

Methods: We selected the four population-based tobacco control interventions with the strongest evidence base. For each intervention, we undertook literature searches to identify the extent of their use in New Zealand during the study period and made comparisons with the other 29 OECD countries.

Results: Increasing the unit price of tobacco: New Zealand has high tobacco prices, but the policy on tax has several limitations relative to best practice within OECD countries. In particular, the high price appears to be shifting many smokers from factory-made cigarettes to loose tobacco, rather than stimulating quitting.

Controls on marketing: While New Zealand compares favourably with most other OECD countries for tobacco marketing controls, some jurisdictions have made more progress in specific areas (e.g. eliminating point-of-sale product displays and removing misleading descriptors on packaging).

Mass media campaigns: The country routinely invests in these campaigns, but the budget is only around $1.2 per capita per year. Some design aspects of the campaigns are progressive, but comparisons with other countries indicate potential for improvements (e.g. learning from counter-industry campaigns in the USA).

Smokefree environments regulations: New Zealand was one of the first OECD countries to implement comprehensive smokefree workplaces legislation (including restaurants and bars) and it still compares well. But gaps remain when compared to some other OECD jurisdictions (e.g. no smokefree car laws).

Conclusions: There is still substantial scope for New Zealand to catch up to OECD leaders in these key tobacco control areas. In particular, there needs to be higher tax levels for loose tobacco (relative to factory-made cigarettes) and the elimination of residual marketing. There are also important gaps in exploiting synergies between interventions in this country.

Citation

Thompson, M.E. (2008). International surveys: motives and methodologies. Survey Methodology, 34, 131-141.

Abstract

The context of the discussion is the increasing incidence of international surveys, of which one is the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Policy Evaluation Project, which began in 2002. The ITC country surveys are longitudinal, and their aim is to evaluate the effects of policy measures being introduced in various countries under the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The challenges of organization, data collection and analysis in international surveys are reviewed and illustrated. Analysis is an increasingly important part of the motivation for large scale cross-cultural surveys. The fundamental challenge for analysis is to discern the real response (or lack of response) to policy change, separating it from the effects of data collection mode, differential non-response, external events, time-in-sample, culture, and language. Two problems relevant to statistical analysis are discussed. The first problem is the question of when and how to analyze pooled data from several countries, in order to strengthen conclusions which might be generally valid. While in some cases this seems to be straightforward, there are differing opinions on the extent to which pooling is possible and reasonable. It is suggested that for formal comparisons, random effects models are of conceptual use. The second problem is to find models of measurement across cultures and data collection modes which will enable calibration of continuous, binary and ordinal responses, and produce comparisons from which extraneous effects have been removed. It is noted that hierarchical models provide a natural way of relaxing requirements of model invariance across groups.

Citation

King, B., Borland, R., Fowles, J. (2007). Mainstream smoke emissions of Australian and Canadian cigarettes. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9(8), 835-844.

Abstract

We investigated how mainstream smoke emissions vary and interrelate in 15 Australian and 21 Canadian brands,using public emissions disclosures from 2001. These disclosures provided emission data for 40 hazardous agents under both standard and intensive ISO testing conditions. Our analyses focused on ‘‘adjusted emissions’’ (i.e., emissions per milligram of nicotine yield) for 13 selected agents. Adjusted emissions differed significantly by ISO testing condition for 9 of the 13 selected agents. Intensive condition adjusted emissions were strongly negatively correlated for several agent pairs. Country and manufacturer variables were the strongest predictors of intensive condition adjusted emissions for 8 of the 13 selected agents and significant predictors for all of them. Taken together, these results suggest potential for the intent of emission limits to be undermined by risk swapping (in which one specific exposure is reduced within a group at the cost of another’s exposure increasing) and risk shifting (in which a specific exposure is reduced within a group at the cost of that exposure’s increasing within another group).

Citation

Baker, T.B., Piper, M.E., McCarthy, D.E., Bolt, D.M., Smith, S.S., Kim, S.Y., Colby, S., Conti, D., Giovino, G.A., Hatsukami, D., Hyland, A., Krishnan-Sarin, S., Perkins, K.A., Niaura, R., Toll, B.A. (2007). Time to first cigarette in the morning as an index of ability to quit smoking: Implications for nicotine dependence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9(Suppl 4), S555-570.

Abstract

An inability to maintain abstinence is a key indicator of tobacco dependence. Unfortunately, little evidence exists regarding the ability of the major tobacco dependence measures to predict smoking cessation outcome. This paper used data from four placebo-controlled smoking cessation trials and one international epidemiological study to determine relations between cessation success and the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), the Heaviness of Smoking Index, the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale, and the Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives. Results showed that much of the predictive validity of the FTND could be attributed to its first item, time to first cigarette in the morning, and this item had greater validity than any other single measure. Thus the time-to-first-cigarette item appears to tap a pattern of heavy, uninterrupted, and automatic smoking and may be a good single-item measure of nicotine dependence.

Citation

Hammond, D., Fong, G.T., Borland, R., Cummings, K.M., McNeill, A., Driezen, P. (2007). Communicating risk to smokers: The impact of health warnings on cigarette packages. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32(3), 202-209.

Abstract

Background: Health warnings on cigarette packages provide smokers with universal access to information on the risks of smoking. However, warnings vary considerably among countries, ranging from graphic depictions of disease on Canadian packages to obscure text warnings in the U.S. The current study examined the effectiveness of health warnings on cigarette packages in four countries.

Methods: Quasi-experimental design. Telephone surveys were conducted with representative cohorts of adult smokers (N= 14,975): Canada (n =3687); the U.S. (n =4273); the UK (n= 3634); and Australia (n =3381). Surveys were conducted between 2002 and 2005, before and at three time points following new warnings on UK packages.

Results: At Wave 1, Canadian smokers reported the highest levels of awareness and impact for health warnings among the four countries, followed by Australian smokers. Following the implementation of new UK warnings at Wave 2, UK smokers reported greater levels of awareness and impact, although Canadian smokers continued to report higher levels of impact after adjusting for the implementation date. U.S. smokers reported the lowest levels of effectiveness for almost every measure recorded at each survey wave.

Conclusions: Large, comprehensive warnings on cigarette packages are more likely to be noticed and rated as effective by smokers. Changes in health warnings are also associated with increased effectiveness. Health warnings on U.S. packages, which were last updated in 1984, were associated with the least effectiveness.